The Spanish Civil War: The Rise of the Forgotten Fascist

Franco Reviewing His Victorious Troops

While it has been argued whether or not Francisco Franco was actually a fascist, it is undeniable that he was a dictator who appeared to enjoy the characteristics often associated with fascism. He possessed an acute sense of patriotism, little to no tolerance for those who disagreed with his political aims, a strong controlling hand over all aspects of his people's lives, and a deep dislike of communism. Either way, there are two things I wanted to focus on about the Spanish Civil War; the first is it's use as a training ground for German and Italian Troops prior to World War II, and the second is the fact that Franco's nation was almost ignored after the Nazi's defeat. Just 3 years before World War II, in 1936, Spain descended into arguably the worst form of violence, a civil war-brother against brother, father against son. The war was between the leftist elements of the relatively new Spanish Republic and the more traditional Nationalists that were often concentrated in the military. Interestingly the Republic forces were backed by the Soviet Union, making one question whether this was a Republic in name only. The Nationalists were backed by both German and Italian forces as they attempted to add another member to the growing club of European ultra-nationalists. The war started after a partially successful coup left the country split between Nationalist and Republic forces. Franco soon found himself in charge of the Nationalist uprising. This is due mainly to the fact that the other senior officers of the rebellion had had previous experiences that left them appearing slightly untrustworthy to many of the hard-core nationalists, as well as the fact that Hitler promised to send all his military support to Franco, and Franco alone. Throughout the war, Hitler and Mussolini both sent troops and arms in order to help the nationalist movement, and this is why the Spanish Civil War is often called a "dress rehearsal" for World War II. There is still some debate about how useful the combat was in training the Fascist troops, but I would simply reason that there were some lessons learned in the years of intense combat. Stalin, on the other hand, attempted to covertly help the Republican forces mainly with supplies; interestingly the arms he shipped were either broken, outdated, or brand new and effective, go figure. Either way, after three years of bloody fighting, Franco had won, just six months before the outbreak of World War II. Now, some state that Hitler and Mussolini were expecting Franco to return the favor and help them during by joining the Axis powers. However Franco refrained from entering the war, and most probably saved his state. Why did he not join his "buddies" in conquering Europe? Perhaps it was because Spain was recovering from the horrors of the war. Perhaps Franco wished to focus on his domestic policy rather than an international war. Whatever the reasons, Franco was able to govern Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. After the first decade of his rule, the harsh oppression of opposition decreased as the last of Republic support waned. Interestingly, Franco's regime was often ignored following World War II, with some believing that his dictatorship was more favorable than the growing threat of the U.S.S.R. and global communism. Franco's legacy is still controversial to say the least. Some in Spain seem to wipe away any memory of him; renaming streets, monuments, and tearing down statues that are even reminiscent to his era. Others wish to open up the official archives and truly reveal what occurred during those years of change and uncertainty; when ideologies clashed, were tried and often only fell with those that supported them.

The Merry Wives of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

George V Sweeping Out His German Titles

During the turbulent days of World War I, anger towards the enemy and anything that could be familiarized with it was common. This seems to be a natural reaction in times of war, when people are bent upon the domination of their foes by force, any semblance of their enemies at home is usually treated with hostility. It was such motivation that led to the creation of the House of Windsor, which still rules today in Britain through Queen Elizabeth II. Anti-German sentiment was on the rise in England, especially after the introduction of a new heavy German bomber in 1917, that was capable of crossing the channel and attacking London directly. Then king, George V was cousin to his German enemy Kaiser Wilhelm II through their grandparents Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Their first daughter became the mother of Kaiser Wilhelm, while their first son became the father of King George. This meant that George V inherited the title of House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha through the male line as was tradition. Now here he was, leading his country in the fight against his German cousin, the "Hun", in the name of England, while he himself held a German title! So, George felt he needed to be English, not just in reality only, but also in name. An official proclamation was made, and the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha became the House of Windsor, possibly chosen for its ties to Windsor Castle a famous royal residence. Upon hearing of his cousins' name-change, Kaiser Wilhelm II is reported to have quipped that he planned to see "The Merry Wives of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha."

Gettysburg Address

Lincoln Watching Over the Capital at the

Lincoln Memorial

Today marks the 151st anniversary of the Gettysburg Address. One of the best known, and arguably greatest, speeches in U.S. history, it was delivered 4 1/2 months after the Battle of Gettysburg at the dedication of the Soldier's National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Within three minutes' time President Abraham Lincoln eloquently reaffirmed the principles of freedom and human equality as established by the founders of America. Lincoln stated that the words spoken that day would not long be remembered, but the actions of the American men who died in defense of our liberty would be. I sincerely hope and believe that both of these historic events will be remembered for generations to come, as a symbol of how whatever may come, the American ideals of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness will live on. President Lincoln summed up his historic oration, with instructions to those living, "that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." Today, Lincoln's address is engraved in his memorial in the U.S. capital in Washington D.C., a fitting seat for one of America's greatest leaders.

Veterans Day: Remembering the Armistice

A U.S. Navy Railway Gun

What is today celebrated as a day to remember all the veterans that have served the United States, originally signified the end of the international conflict in the early 20th century. The armistice celebrated November 11th marks the signing of the final armistice of World War I between Germany and the Allied powers. Three days prior to the signing the delegates from Germany were secretly brought across the war zone to a secure location on board  a carriage of Marshall Ferdinand Foch's private train parked in the forest of Compeigne. When the delegates arrived they were given a list of demands and 72 hours to agree. There was no room to actually negotiate during the period, and very little was promised in return by the Allies. Only a few impossible terms were they able to correct, such as the demand that they decommission more submarines than were in their fleet. After three days reviewing the harsh demands, with pressure from Germany for the armistice, the delegation signed at 5:00 AM, November 11th, 1918, ending the fighting. The last shot of the war was fired by the U.S. Navy railway battery number four near Verdun at 10:57:30 AM, timed so it would land far into the German-held territory right before the 11:00 AM cease-fire. Interestingly, no fighting had ever occurred on German soil in the West the entire length of the war. Now the actual terms of peace were not formalized until 6 months later after the Paris Peace Conference at the signing of the Versailles Treaty, which was signed  on the 28th of June, exactly 5 years after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (See previous post.) Rejecting President Wilson's 14 points, which the German's were reportedly expecting, the other Allies opted for harsher punishments for Germany, blaming them solely for the war. Many have criticized the Versailles treaty as not being designed to ensure a lasting peace, but is actually one of the reasons for the Second World War.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie

One hundred years ago, the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne lit the fuse that caused the world to descend into the "Great War." There wasn't much great about the conflict that cost the lives of over 15 million people. While the growing armament and resentment of the pre-war era is heavily discussed, not many talk about the actual murder of the man and wife whose deaths were used almost as an excuse for the war. The Archduke was heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a fairly large state that controlled what is now Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and more. In late June of 1914, Franz was on a diplomatic trip to meet with the governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Now, there was a lot of ethnic tension in these areas at the time. Nationalism was strong and many of these minorities felt that the Austrians were their unrightful rulers. In this particular area, many of the Serbians in the area felt much closer ties to their Serbian, and even Russian, neighbors than their Austrian governors. One of these Serbians was Gravilo Princip. He was a member of the Black Hand, an organization that basically wanted to unify all Serbians under a single state. They had already been part of assassination attempts before, even attempting to kill the emperor in 1911. On the 28th of June, Princip, along with other Black Hand members, attempted to kill the Archduke and his wife on their way into Sarajevo. One member threw a grenade at their car while they entered the city, but missed, and hit one of the cars behind them, hurting many of the bystanders. The man who threw the grenade ate a cyanide pill and jumped into the river Milijacka in an attempt to avoid capture. However, the cyanide pill was expired and simply made him sick, and the river was only a few inches deep and didn't kill him, and he was soon captured. The other assassins did not have another chance to attack as the car carrying Franz and his wife sped by. After having dinner with the governor and other officials, the Archduke and Sophie decided to visit those wounded in the explosion at the hospital. Unfortunately everyone forgot to tell the driver, who assumed they were still on schedule. Eventually one of the passengers figured out they were going the wrong way and told the driver to turn around. Now Princip, having avoided capture, went to a bar which had a large window that looked out onto the street. He glanced up from his beer and saw the Archduke's car turning around. Seizing the opportunity, he walked outside crossed to the car, and shot both Franz and Sophie. He attempted to take cyanide, but it too was expired; and when that didn't work he tried to shoot himself, but the cyanide made him vomit, allowing the police to subdue him. The Archduke's last words were reported to be "Sophie dear! Don't die! Stay alive for our children!" Unfortunately, Sophie and Franz both died shortly thereafter, as they were being rushed to help. After the assassination, much rumor occurred about the incident. Austria-Hungary and Serbia were already at odds, and the murder by the Serbian nationalists did anything but help. A month after the incident, an ultimatum was delivered to the Serbians. Franz and Sophie, the young parents were arguably the first causalities of this, the Great War.

The First Commercial Steam-Powered Railroad

The Salamanca

The Middleton Railway boasts an interesting history. The one mile long railway has been running longer than the United States has existed. Founded in 1758, it has been run by volunteers since 1960 as a heritage site. Located in West Yorkshire, England, the railway was originally made to transport coal to Leeds and was called a Wagon-Way. It was called such because it originally carried wagons pulled by horses on the wooden tracks. The Railway's claim to fame came in 1812, when it changed out the wagon system for a new steam-engine locomotive. The manager of the railway, John Blenkinsop, felt that they would need new rails for the engine to overcome the steep hills. So Blenkinsop designed and patented a railway which had one rail that was toothed like a gear. He then asked Matthew Murray, a successful innovator, to design a locomotive with a pinion, a toothed wheel, to mesh with the track. Murray built the Salamanca, the first steam locomotive to use two cylinders. Murray and Blenkinsop's inventions made this the first successful cog railway in the world! The Salamanca became the first successfully operated commercial steam locomotive in the world in 1812, and with it brought many other first-time world records to Middleton. Unfortunately some of these were terrible and unwanted records, such as the first person to be killed by locomotive in 1813. Another series of misfortune came again in 1818 and 1834 when boiler explosions occurred, killing the first ever regular locomotive driver, James Hewitt. Steam was abandoned after this in favor of horse-drawn wagons, until 1866 when new engines were introduced. The railway continued operating for many years, connecting to other rails and switching hands, until volunteers took over the small section in order to make a living history railway. The fascinating history of the Middleton Railway gives us a brief glimpse into the makings of the incredible machines that have and continue to transport and connect the world.

The Original Restaurant

A Thermopolium in Pompeii

Way back in Ancient Greece and Rome, many people in the urban cities of the time enjoyed eating out. Many lived in housing similar to modern apartment buildings called insulae in Latin. These insulae were everywhere in Rome, similar to modern cities, the buildings were close to each other and housed many people. Just like today quite a few of these apartments didn't have full kitchens to cook and prepare foods. Now, the bottom floor of these apartments were often reserved for tabernae, or shops and markets. The Romans as well as the Greek were very social people and enjoyed going around the city, shopping, visiting friends, and going to the theatre. One of the ways they would socialize was, just like today, eating! The combination of crowded cities, a demand for prepared food, and the desire to hangout with friends gave birth to some of the first restaurants in the world: the thermopolia! These were small L-shaped bars in which they laid large jars of hot and cold food and drinks. Anyone could walk up, order, and pay for a prepared meal to enjoy. These were often located on the corners of large buildings, such as the insulae, to allow the general populous easy access. The popularity of these ancient, possibly original, restaurants can be seen in the ruins of Pompeii, where there are over 150 individual thermopolium!

The Pancho Villa Expedition

Francisco "Pancho" Villa

While the threat of war was looming in Europe, Mexico was already in a state of Turmoil. What started out as a revolt against the dictator Porfirio Diaz in 1910 descended into a civil war with multiple players. Francisco "Pancho" Villa was one of these main combatants. After expelling Diaz's successor, the general-turned-dictator Huerta in 1914, Villa felt that Venustiano Carranza, his one time ally, was turning himself into the next dictator of Mexico. So, Villa turned against Carranza, but his forces were defeated shortly thereafter at the Battle of Celaya in 1915. Now the United States, under Woodrow Wilson, which had been backing the revolutionary forces, including Villa, decided to support the new President Carranza, and so ceased all support previously given to Villa. Villa was extremely upset by this, and saw it as a terrible betrayal. There are a few different reasons for what Villa did next, one is for revenge on the U.S., another is for revenge on an arms dealer who sold him dud weapons and ammunition for the Battle of Celaya, but the other is his need for more weapons to continue his war on Carranza. Anyway, Villa took 100 of his men and ordered a raid on Columbus, New Mexico in March 1916. 80 of Pancho's men and 18 Americans were killed and part of the town was burned down. The U.S. reacted quickly to this raid and organized a force of 5,000 men placed under the command of General John J. Pershing to defeat Pancho Villa. The Mexican government did not like the idea of having U.S. troops stomping around their country side, and so did not allow them the use of their railways. This caused the U.S. to make use of trucks, the first time the army ever had. General Pershing brought with him a Curtiss JN-3 airplane which he sent out on reconnaissance missions. The expedition also gave junior officers such as 1st Lieutenant George S. Patton Jr. practice in the field.  While the expedition had failed to get Villa by the time it ended in February 1917, many of Villa's senior commanders were either captured or killed, along with 190 of his men. After the expedition Pancho returned to guerrilla warfare, since he no longer had a major fighting force. After the assassination of Carranza in 1920, he asked the new president for amnesty and was allowed to retire from his fighting later that year. However, unfortunately for Villa, he himself was assassinated while driving home in 1923. The two major theories for the assassination are for political purposes, or revenge against Villa for his vendetta against the Herrera family. Either way, this era of U.S.-Mexican relations is a very interesting and not highly discussed time in both of our histories.

The Original Brutus and the Founding of the Roman Republic

A Bust of Brutus

The Roman historian Livy tells us that before the republic, Rome was a kingdom, ruled by a tyrant monarch named Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, around 500 B.C. He is said to have lied, connived, and assassinated his way onto the throne, and when there would often execute his opponents without true legal proceedings. Now Lucius Junius Brutus, or as I like to call him the "original" Brutus, was the nephew of this King, as his mother was the king's sister. He already disliked the king, as one of the important men executed was Brutus' own brother. In order to escape his own death, Brutus apparently pretended to be very stupid and slow, and so allayed any suspicion on himself. Now, there are a few different stories of how this went down, but anyway King Tarquin's son Sextus Tarquinius raped Lucretia, the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus a relative and friend of Brutus. The next day, she gathered her husband, father, and Brutus and told them what happened and asked them for a vow of vengeance. She then stabbed herself with a concealed knife. Brutus took the dagger and swore an oath to exile the Tarquin family from Rome, he also made everyone present swear the same. Brutus brought the body to the forum and began recruiting for a revolutionary army. He also called many of the leading political members of Rome and began an authoritative legislative assembly. He leveled crimes against the Tarquins such as murder, rape, tyranny, forced labor for citizens. A debate began upon the form of government that would be instituted, and it was decided that a Republic would be formed with two elected officials taking the place of the king. A general election was held among the citizens of Rome, and the Republic was confirmed; the King and family left Rome altogether. Lucius Junius Brutus served as the first of the two Consuls of Rome, and so the Republic was born.